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Histamine, a biogenic amine, plays a crucial role in various physiological processes, including immune responses, gastric acid secretion, and neurotransmission. Central to the action of histamine are histamine receptors, which are distributed broadly across different tissues and cell types. This article delves into the nature, types, and functions of histamine receptors, highlighting their significance in immunological and neurological processes. Understanding Histamine Receptors: Histamine exerts its effects by binding to specific receptors on the surfaces of target cells. These receptors are part of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) family, characterized by their seven tran …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurological disorder that primarily affects the motor system, leading to a wide array of symptoms ranging from tremors and stiffness to bradykinesia (slowness of movement) and postural instability. Beyond these hallmark motor symptoms, Parkinson's disease can manifest in non-motor symptoms such as cognitive decline, mood disorders, and autonomic dysfunction, making it a multifaceted condition that challenges both individuals and healthcare systems worldwide. This article delves into the etiology, pathophysiology, clinical manifestations, and therapeutic strategies for Parkinson's disease, shedding light on the complexities of this debilitating d …

Glutamate receptors are pivotal in mediating excitatory neurotransmission in the central nervous system (CNS), playing crucial roles in synaptic transmission, plasticity, learning, and memory. These receptors are classified into two main categories: ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) and metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), each with distinct subtypes, signaling mechanisms, and functional roles. This article delves into the classification of glutamate receptors, their functional roles within the CNS, the intricate signaling pathways they mediate, mechanisms regulating their activity, and their involvement in various neurological disorders. Types of Glutamate Receptors …

Ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) are pivotal in the fast excitatory synaptic transmission in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS). These receptors are not only crucial for normal brain function, including learning and memory but are also implicated in various neurological disorders, making them a significant subject of neuropharmacological research. The Basics of Glutamate and Its Receptors: Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter in the CNS. It exerts its effects through two main types of receptors: ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors. Ionotropic receptors are ligand-gated ion channels, which, upon binding of glutamate, open to allow the flo …

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a progressive neurological disorder that predominantly affects the motor system, leading to a wide range of symptoms including tremors, rigidity, bradykinesia (slowness of movement), and postural instability. This article delves into the pathophysiology, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options for Parkinson's disease, providing a comprehensive understanding of this complex condition. Understanding Parkinson's Disease Pathophysiology Parkinson's disease is characterized by the degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons in the substantia nigra, a region of the brain that plays a critical role in regulating movement. The decline in dopamine leve …

Alzheimer's disease stands as a formidable challenge in the realm of neurological disorders, characterized by its progressive nature and profound impact on cognitive functions. This article delves deeper into the facets of Alzheimer's disease, exploring its causes, mechanisms, clinical manifestations, and current therapeutic strategies, enriched with current scientific insights. Etiology and Risk Factors Genetic Factors The genetic landscape of Alzheimer's disease is complex, with both hereditary (familial AD) and sporadic forms. Key genes implicated in its pathogenesis include the amyloid precursor protein (APP), presenilin-1 (PSEN1), and presenilin-2 (PSEN2). Mutations i …

Understanding the differentiation pathways of neural stem cells (NSCs) and the identification of lineage-specific markers is a cornerstone in the field of neurobiology and regenerative medicine. This knowledge is pivotal in unraveling the complexities of brain development and for advancing therapeutic strategies for neurological disorders. Introduction to Neural Stem Cell Differentiation Neural stem cells are unique in their ability to self-renew and differentiate into various neural lineages. This process is tightly regulated through intricate signaling pathways and the expression of specific lineage markers. NSC differentiation involves a stepwise progression into multipotent p …

The gut-brain axis, a dynamic bi-directional communication system linking the gastrointestinal (GI) tract with the central nervous system (CNS), has emerged as a focal point in scientific research. This intricate network underscores the interconnectedness of physiological processes, revealing how the gut microbiota interfaces with cognitive functions. Beyond its conventional digestive role, the gut plays a pivotal role in shaping neurological processes, emotions, and behavior. Through neural pathways, hormonal signaling, and immune mediators, the gut and brain engage …

Delve into the pivotal role of Neurofilament Light chain (NEFL) in neuron structure and its emerging importance as a biomarker for various neurodegenerative diseases, offering insights into disease progression and treatment monitoring. Key Takeaways: Explore the significance of Neurofilament Light chain (NEFL) as a biomarker for neuronal damage and its role in neurodegenerative diseases. Understand NEFL's function in the neuronal cytoskeleton, transport mechanisms, and post-translational modifications. Discover NEFL's involvement in conditions like Alzheimer’s, ALS, Huntington’s disease, and its potential as a diagnostic tool. Neurofilament Light Cha …

Schwann cells are cells that play a vital role in nerve function. They are responsible for myelinating axons and helping to ensure the transmission of electrical signals between neurons. Schwann cells also have an important role in nerve regeneration. In this guide, we will take a closer look at the structure and function of Schwann cells, as well as some of the key marker proteins involved in their differentiation. By understanding more about these cells, we can gain insights into the causes of neurodegenerative diseases and potentially develop new treatment approaches. { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "BlogPosting", "mainEntityOfPage": { "@type": "WebPage" …

The myelin sheath is an insulating layer around nerve cells. It is made up of a substance called myelin, which is produced by special cells called oligodendrocytes. Myelin protects the nerve cells and to keep them maintain their function. Myelin is important for the proper function of the nervous system. It helps to speed up nerve impulses and prevents them from becoming mixed up. Without myelin, nerve impulses would move slowly and would be easily confused. Myelin is also important for the repair of damaged nerves. When a nerve is damaged, the myelin sheath around it is also damaged. The oligodendrocytes that produce myelin can also repair the myelin sheath. This process is called myeli …

Explore the world of astrocytes, crucial star-shaped cells in the brain, and understand how specific markers help study their roles in neural health and disorders. Key Takeaways: Astrocytes are star-shaped glial cells vital for brain function and homeostasis. They regulate the brain environment, neurotransmitter levels, and synaptic signaling. Astrocyte markers, like GFAP and S100B, identify and study astrocyte functions. What Are Astrocytes? Astrocytes are a type of star-shaped glial cell found in the central nervous system. They play essential roles in maintaining neuronal health and supporting brain homeostasis. In order to understand the functions and charac …

Oligodendrocytes are pivotal CNS cells, integral for myelin formation and nerve function, with implications in various neurological disorders. Key Takeaways Oligodendrocytes are specialized glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS), crucial for myelinating axons, enhancing nerve signal transmission, and supporting neuronal function. They differ from Schwann cells, which myelinate in the peripheral nervous system. Oligodendrocytes are implicated in diseases like multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's, with treatment strategies focusing on immunomodulation, remyelination, neuroprotection, and symptomatic relief. What Are Oligodendrocytes? Oligodendrocytes are a …

Radial glial cells are essential in shaping the nervous system, serving dual roles in neurogenesis and structural support during the brain's developmental stages. Key Takeaways: Radial glial cells are vital in neurogenesis and brain development, acting as both progenitor cells and structural guides. They exhibit unique radial morphology, extending from the ventricular zone to the pial surface. Radial glial cells differentiate into various neuronal and glial types, influencing neural circuit formation. Table of Contents Jump to a section: - Cell Identification - Radial Glial Stem Cells - Glial Cell Development - Functions and Impacts of RGCs - T …

Explore the essential role of Tau proteins in neuronal health and their impact in neurodegenerative diseases, unfolding the complexity behind their functions and dysfunctions. Key Takeaways: Tau proteins, especially microtubule-associated protein tau (MAPT), are crucial for neuron structure maintenance. They stabilize microtubules, which are integral for cell functions like division and neurotransmission. In neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer's, tau proteins undergo abnormal changes, leading to neurofibrillary tangles. Tau proteins are present in the brain and peripheral tissues, and their gene is located on chromosome 17. Various neurodegenerative disorders, collectivel …

Key Takeaways: Microglia are immune cells in the CNS, originating from myeloid precursor cells. They surveil the CNS, respond to changes, and maintain neural health. Microglia exist in different states: amoeboid, ramified, and reactive. Their activation is crucial in neurodegenerative diseases and brain health. What are Microglia? Microglia are a specialized type of immune cells that reside within the central nervous system (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord. Originating from myeloid precursor cells, microglia colonize the CNS during early development. In their resting state, microglia exhibit a distinctive morphology with small cell bodies and highly branched p …

The tau protein is a hot topic in the scientific world right now. This little-known protein has been linked to Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and other neurodegenerative diseases. But what is it, exactly? And what does it do? What is the structure of tau proteins? The human gene that encodes for tau proteins is found on chromosome 17. Each tau protein is about 50-85 kiloDaltons in size and has around 0.01% of the total brain proteins. Tau consists of many domains that are important for its function, including: The N-terminal domain (which contains four microtubule-binding repeats) The proline-rich region (which is located between the microtubule-binding domain …

What is the blood-brain barrier? The Blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a system of vessels that acts as a structural and chemical barrier between the brain and the rest of the body's circulation. It is composed of a layer of endothelial cells (ECs), which line the interior surface of blood vessels, and their associated tight junctions (TJs). Tight junctions are protein complexes that seal the spaces between adjacent ECs and prevent the passage of blood cells and large molecules from one side of the blood vessel to the other. The BBB is not a static structure. It can be opened or closed in response to various stimuli. For example, the BBB becomes more permeable during inflammation, …

A neuron is a cell that processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals. There are trillions of them in the human brain, which is able to carry out so many complex tasks without conscious effort. These cells are the primary building blocks for AI because they are how all biological organisms process information about their surroundings. The key to understanding how these fascinating creatures work will be the first step towards creating intelligent machines with human-like cognition. Parts of a Neuron Neurons have three primary parts: dendrites, cell body, and axon (in this order). Dendrites detect changes in electrical potential across the surface of neu …

Microglia Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Glial Cells Glial cells are the most abundant cell type in your brain. Previously glial cells were thought to be non-functional glue for neurons, however, years of research have highlighted their key role in regulating neuron activity. The main glial cells are microglia, astrocytes and oligodendrocyte cells. Glia of the nervous system are divided into two main types: white matter glia and grey matter glia. White matter glia support nerve fibers that transmit information between different r …

Toll-Like Receptors The innate immune response has come under the spotlight in recent years due to its central role in propagating the pathogenesis of several diseases, and specifically in driving neurodegenerative aetiology (1-3). Toll-like receptors (TLRs), the mammalian homologue of the Drosophila melanogaster Toll, are highly conserved innate immune receptors and master regulators of the cellular innate immune response (4-6). Research by several groups in the early 1990s discovered the pivotal role of TLRs in the initiation and propagation of the inflammatory signalling in response to bacterial, viral or microbial nucleic acids, kn …

BDNF Overview Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is a central mediator of neuroplasticity, a term used to describe the ability of neurons to adapt in response to challenges, resulting in structural and functional changes to neurons (Huang et al, 2001). BDNF is the second member of the neurotrophin family to be identified, with nerve growth factor (NGF) discovered 3 decades prior (Barde et al, 1982; Levi-Montalcini and Hamburger, 1951). Several other neurotrophic factors have since been discovered, all possessing distinct functions in specified areas of the central nervous system (CNS) (Shen et al, 1997). BDNF is expressed through …

By Eleni Chrysostomou, PhD Candidate, NUIG Why do we need to know how the Nervous System develops and regenerates? The structure and function of the nervous system remains one of the most fascinating and yet challenging aspects in biology. The way in which neural progenitors (NPs) are specified and spatially arranged, and how they proliferate, differentiate and migrate to form a functional nervous system is controlled by patterning mechanisms which are not fully understood. When it comes to neuronal regeneration, the picture is even more blurry. Unravelling how these patterning mechanisms are controlled and regulated to form a neuronal …

By Sinead Kinsella PhD The Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS) The Ubiquitin Proteasome System (UPS) is a regulatory machinery for protein turnover in the cell (Pickart, 2001), and strict regulation of the balance between protein synthesis and degradation is essential for cellular homeostasis (Gaczynska et al., 2001). The UPS is composed of the ubiquitination system, which governs the labelling of proteins for degradation, and the proteasome, which carries out protein degradation (Jansen et al., 2014). Ubiquitin degradation is a highly regulated process with specific targeting of the protein with ubiquitin molecules prior to degradation by the …